If you have a doctoral degree, are you called DR.?
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What anyone is called is by choice. If Holly Madison went out and earned an EdD, you could address her as Dr. Madison, Miss Madison, Ms Madison, or Holly – your choice. You would not address her as Professor Madison unless she also got an appointment on a college faculty. But, you would probably address her according to her preference, if known. I have a friend who wanted to be called Bill, which has no relevance to his real name.
Historically, the first doctorates were in philosophy (the present PhD), so those with PhD’s have the first claim to the honorific “Doctor”. They consider MD’s, DDS’s, DVM’s, etc. as trade degrees, and do not carry the prestige of a PhD. Recall that the earliest physicians had the same training as barbers.
As to your second question, that depends on the subject matter. If marketing is what you have in mind, the answer is yes, you can get a doctorate in marketing if your undergraduate degree is in something else, like engineering or psychology, for example, but your doctoral program would probably demand that you complete the requirements for the master’s in marketing (either an MBA or an MS) as part of your doctoral program.
In some cases yes, but in other fields it’s really not possible. Science, engineering, health care, if you don’t have the background you can’t go any further. But that’s not true for a lot of other programs.
EDIT: Keep in mind that Hubble lived a long time ago, before we knew much about astronomy at all. That’s really not possible these days – to go to graduate school in astronomy, you need to have a BA in physics.
I have a bacholors in Psychology and then a law degree. I think it matters more for a doctorate program on what your masters degree is than your BA. I think a lot of schools will let you come into a program regardless of degrees if you did well in school.
A few exceptions. In highly formal settings, the title will be used. For example, Condoleeza Rice is called “Dr. Rice” whenever she is not called “Secretary Rice” or “Madam Secretary.” And remember Sally Ride? In Richard Feynman’s book he referred to her as “Dr. Ride” in reference to the space shuttle hearings.